Active Learning

 

An interactive learning environment is one where:

• Participants are involved in seeking and creating knowledge for themselves and others. Students share in the responsibility of their own and others’ learning.
• Students in the course interact with others in their immediate community (the instructor of their course and the other students in the course), in the larger university community, and in the community outside the university.
• Participants are active. They are listening, thinking, writing, discussing, questioning, responding, solving problems, computing, forming hypotheses, doing experiments, working on projects, sharing information and feelings.
• The instructor encourages and facilitates communication among students and the participants.
• The student, rather than the instructor, is the focus of the learning/teaching process.

Students benefit from an interactive learning environment because:

• Lectures are not always the most effective way to facilitate learning. Student attention during lectures declines after 15-20 minutes (Stuart & Rutherford, 1978; Penner 1984). In the first 10 minutes of a lecture, students retain 70% of the information presented, in the last 10 minutes only 20%. (McKeachie, 1986).
• Interactive learning approaches promote increased retention of information, problem solving performance, higher order thinking, attitude change, motivation for further learning in comparison to lecture methods (McKeachie, 1987).
• Interactive learning promotes attainment of general education goals of living in community, civic responsibility, negotiation and conflict resolution skills, critical judgment and analysis, and oral and written communication skills. (Astin, 1991; Gamson, 1994).

Special planning issues for interactive learning include:

• Plan activities that will increase student responsibility-taking as the course progresses.
• Prepare students for the activity, helping them learn how to learn.
• Provide operational guidelines, including how to work together in a group for collaborative assignments.
• Provide opportunities for communication - effectiveness is impacted by frequent communication for the sharing of ideas, plans, disagreements, and consensus.

The degree of student involvement in these kinds of activities can vary depending upon the amount of time available and the depth of involvement needed for student learning. The following is just a sample list of common interactive learning methods. Additional types of activities may be found from the general resources listed at the end of this page.

 

Student response systems

This new in-class technology allows instructors to survey student understanding or jump-start discussions on class content. Students respond to questions via remote devices and the instructor can reveal the resulting statistics. Instructors wanting to incorporate this new technology in their classes should make advanced arrangements with publishers and ET@MO to coordinate the set-up and learn effective uses.

Additional Resources

Electronic Response Systems, The Foundation Coalition

Personal Response Systems, Vanderbilt University

Interactive Learning Tools and Techniques: Personal Response Systems, Murphy, P. & Riddle, R., Duke Graduate School and Center for Instructional Technology

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Think-pair-share

This is a "multi-mode" strategy developed to encourage student participation in the classroom. The components include:

• Students listen while the teacher poses a question
• Students are given time in which to think of a response
• Students are then cued to pair with a neighbor and discuss their responses
• Finally, students are invited to share their responses with the whole group

A time limit is set for each step in the process, depending on the difficulty of the question asked. Students are encouraged to use any form of oral or written format to organize and convey their thoughts while in the think and/or pair mode(s). Instructors have found that more students respond to questions after rehearsing in pairs. Students have better recall due to increased "wait time," and the quality of responses is better. Like students, teachers also have more time to think when using think-pair-share. They can concentrate on asking higher-order questions, observing student reactions and listening to student responses.

 

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Personal journaling

Putting personal thoughts in writing helps students focus on what is important to them, as well as the progress they are making within a course. Journaling may be presented as an individual assignment to be shared only with the instructor. With the use of web tools like discussion boards or blogs, journaling is also being used as a group activity. To keep journal writing assignments from becoming tedious,

• Read or show interest in students' journals.
• Respond to students' journals.
• Give journal assignments a clear focus or purpose.
• Integrate journal writing into the larger thinking processes in your discipline.
• Let students feel free to take intellectual and creative risks in their journals that they might not in formal writing or open discussion.
• Relax rigorous standards for grammar, spelling, and style when evaluating journal entries. ( MU Campus Writing Program's The Writery, Vol. 1, No.3, p.3)

Additional Resources

Journaling – Not Just for English Teachers, ITPG

Creating a Learning Community through Electronic Journaling, Anne Bollati

 

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Cooperative or collaborative learning

Instructors use a variety of patterns for organizing students into small, heterogenous or homogeneous groups for the purpose of learning and working together. 5 common patterns are classified as:

• Teams/Games/Tournament - this highly competitive approach allows instructor input; groups compete to successfully complete worksheets or activities, and the team scores are based on individual success
• Student Teams/Achievement Divisions - a competitive method that also allows instructor input; groups compete to successfully complete worksheets or activities. However, the team scores are based on individual improvement.
• Jigsaw Groups - this is a non-competitve method where groups exist within groups. Each member of a small group is given specialized information on a topic the whole group is studying. After exploring the material, expert groups are formed with "counterparts" from all of the groups. After discussions and mastery, the experts go back to their original groups and teach it to their other team members.
• Learning Together - a non-competitive approach that focuses on peer assistance for an assigned group project. Evaluation is based upon individual and group performance.
• Group Investigation - this non-competititve method also has the least instructor input and structure. Each small group has control of their project choice and presentation. The evaluation may be on only the group performance or on a combination of individual and group mastery.

Additional resources

Collaborative Learning: Group Work and Study Teams

Cooperative Learning, Values, and Culturally Plural Classrooms by David W. Johnson and Roger T. Johnson

Building Learning Teams: The Key to Harnessing the Power of Small Groups in Higher Education by Larry K. Michaelsen

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Research assignments

When instructors include research assignments, they usually do so to help students to learn something and/or to gather evidence. While some courses do incorporate original research, most college course use research assignments that are based on secondary research. Sources for research include people (experts or those with historical knowledge), print-based materials, as well as media. Instructors should be ready to help prepare students who are new to research activity within a specific field. Knowing where to find information, how to evaluate quality of resources, and process procedures are skills that student need to develop. The checklist for research assignments often includes:

• Identify the main concepts or keywords for your topic.
• Decide on the types of information you'll need.
• Find the information in the Library.
• Evaluate your information.
• Complete the assignment.
• Edit and revise your assignment.
• Cite your sources (from Bowling Green State University Library).

Additional Resources

The Seven Steps of the Research Process, Olin & Uris Libraries

What is Evidence? By Richard F. Taflinger

The Problems with Statistics by Richard F. Taflinger

 

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Writing assignments

One-minute papers are an effective way of using writing as an in-class assignment to help students reflect on their understanding of course content. The most common out-of-class writing assignment is creating a paper. Helping students know how to develop a paper can be very helpful (for writing, reviewing, and grading). Experienced instructors also recommend including a rubric for the assignment that notes the various expectations for a successful grade, including a focus on developing drafts before creating the final paper. To help avoid the difficulties imposed by skipping the draft and feedback process, many college instructors include peer review within writing assignment requirements.

Additional Resources

Writing Papers, Virginia Tech

Advice on Research and Writing, Carnegie Mellon University

Writing to Learn vs Learning to Write, Marty Patton, University of Missouri-Columbia

Writing, by Marty Townsend and Elaine Hocks

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Peer review

For an effective peer review process, the assignment should include multiple parts that are complex enough to require substantive revision for most students. Students should submit a draft or other preliminary work, consider responses from peers (as well as the instructor), revise, and finally edit. The final version of the assignment should be the result of a work in progress. It is very helpful for writer and reviewer alike to have a rubric or list of guidelines so that they will know what to expect from each other.

Additional Resources

The Peer Review Process, TeleFordWork.net

Peer Review Guidelines, Cornell University

Guidelines for Peer Reviews, Pacific Lutheran University

 

Peer discussions

Creating discussion questions that lead to effective interactions remains a challenge. Research has shown that students respond best to questions that connect to practical problems. Some instructors have also found that providing different environments (i.e. the classroom and the online discussion board) provides avenues to help students more easily focus on content rather than individual differences (i.e., gender, physical disabilities, language or culture differences). Response to discussion questions may be either an individual-focused instructional method, or a group method when there is a requirement of responding to others' comments and a dialogue results. Instructors may use discussion to accomplish one or more of the following:

• Help students to reconsider prior views
• Distinguish among alternatives
• Develop new insights that link prior and introduced ideas
• Seeking new information
• Promote some ideas over others
• Coalesce previously distinct notions
• Restructure ideas to enhance connections.
• Apply new ideas to personally-relevant problems.

Additional Resources

Five Minute Workshop on Discussion, Marty Patton

Leadership Interventions, Asking Questions from the Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning Development -

Discussion and Reading Comprehension (Peer Discussions), Developed by Gillian Scalzo largely from the ideas and publications of Janice Almasi, University at Buffalo

 

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Cognitive Mapping

A concept map is a representation of knowledge in graphs that represent networks of concepts. They may also be characterized as flow charts, webs, or similar descriptors. It is an excellent means for an instructor to know whether students truly grasp the concepts and relationships of the course content. Nodes (points on the graph) represent a given concept, and links (connecting arches or lines) represent the relationship between concepts. Students may also use the computer to develop concept maps. Computing software makes it easier to correct, manipulate, and adapt a concept map (as opposed to creating one on paper). Examples of software brands available include Cmap for Macintosh, Inspiration Software, and Activity Map. Evaluation of a map could include the number of concepts, focal concepts, organization and validity of linkages, number of linkages, horizontal vs. vertical flow, categories of links, and completeness of interrelationships. You can find more details in the PDF document on Concept Mapping.

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Projects or presentations

Projects and presentations can be utilized as an individual or small group assignment. Student presentations can be effective ways of helping students initially learn the content. There is nothing like having to teach a subject to encourage deeper learning. Presentations may also become another way of helping the rest of the class learn additional content. Finally, presentations may be used as a way of practicing and/or applying the concepts learned earlier in the class. Students present their projects to their peers outside of their small group. Questions and answers may follow, with the instructor moderating. Prior to project and presentation development, students benefit from instructor’s guidelines about expressing opinions, cooperation, and how to lead a discussion (so that others may have the opportunity to benefit from follow-up questions). This helps to define expectations regarding how to take responsibility and be accountable for their work. Project groups may be built around other instructional methods like group presentations, case studies, or problem-based learning.

Additional Resources

Group Projects and Presentations, Learning Capsules

The Key Steps to An Effective Presentation, Eggleston, T.S.

Structuring Effective Group Projects, St. Edwards University

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Argumentative and persuasive assignments

Debates require students to invest both individual and group effort. Usually there are 3 basic kinds of propositions for a debate: Fact, Value , and Policy. A simple debate format includes:

• Affirmative constructive presentation (in favor of the proposition/YES to the question)
• Negative constructive presentation (against the proposition/NO to the question)
• Affirmative rebuttal
• Negative rebuttal

A more complicated format includes cross-examinations (before the rebuttals) by the opposing side after each has presented. Regardless of the format, however, it is also helpful if the instructor provides students with a rubric of the key elements for a successful presentation. These fall under two broad areas – process and critical thinking. Process includes:

1. Preview the argument
2. Identify the main point of the argument
3. Provide evidence for the argument
4. Summarize and wrap up the argument.

The second area, critical thinking, examines the evidence and argument provided by the student:

• Tests of evidence (i.e. date, qualified source, bias, relevance)
• Tests of reasoning (i.e. typical, sufficient number of examples)
• Causal reasoning (i.e. cause associated with effect, factors interfering with cause). (Dr. John Hess, MU director of Communications 75 courses)

Additional Resources

Five Minute Workshop on Structuring an Argument, Marty Patton

Occasions for Argumentative Essays, Paradigm Online Writing Assistant

An Example Assignment:
Persuasive Presentations Based on Field Projects, University of Notre Dame

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Games or simulations

The use of gaming and computer-based simulation tools mirrors reality and thus can impact learning. The U.S. Army even uses this technique to help train soldiers in areas such as strategizing and decision-making; analysis of strategic operational and tactical operations; and experimentation with war-fighting concepts. Games can be designed for individual involvement (where the player pits themselves against the game's parameters) or for groups (where players work collaboratively and/or competitively). Games are designed to:

• Interest students
• Imitate life situations or skills
• Are challenging
• Promote creativity

Negative aspects of gaming might also include the potential for cultural biases and the potential for the game to become all-consuming, resulting in a misplaced focus, changes in behavior, and/or changes in relationships (Ruben,1999). Because gaming can also have these negative aspects, teachers need to ensure that the games they use are geared to their instructional objectives and teach the material or skills they are wanting to teach.

Additional Resources

Group Gaming & Simulation in Hospitality Management: A User's Guide by Lyn Fawcett on the Learning and Teaching Support Network website of resources

Games to Teach By. A paper by Mungai, D., Jones, D., and Wong, L. for the 18^th Annual Conference on Distance Teaching and Learning, Madison WI

Teaching with Games: The Minesweeper and Asteroids Experience by Katrin Becker -

Ruben, B. (1999). Simulations, Games, and Experience-Based Learning: The Quest for a New Paradigm for Teaching and Learning. Simulation and Gaming, 30(4), 498-505.

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Interviews with "experts" in the field

Students may conduct interviews as a class project, utilizing a variety of communication tools or in person. The result of the interview could be captured on audio or video tape or summarized in a student report. Another approach is that an instructor may invite a guest lecturer to be a part of the course and students may be allowed to interview the guest. Like most methods, the instructor gains better results from students if there is an investment in preparing them for success. Although many students are probably aware of the basics for conducting an interview, a list of guidelines would be helpful for those who are new or need to review the process. An example of a list of guidelines (taken from radio and television sources) is included below:

• Research the topic prior to conducting an interview; be sure of your facts
• Research the person being interviewed before conducting the interview - be sure they are knowledgeable in the topic being discussed
• Be aware of the time available for the interview - the length of time you have determines the questions you can ask
• Prepare your questions well in advance - clear, concise questions that are focused around a primary idea. Ask open-ended questions - questions that cannot be answered with only a "yes" or "no" reply. The scripted or semi-scripted approach is best for most interviews.
• Arrange the interview at a convenient time and location; as a reminder, contact the "expert" a few hours in advance to confirm the arrangements
• Prepare your "expert" in advance regarding any technical requirements (if you are recording) and the type of questions you will ask. This will help to keep your topic on track during an interview
• Be prompt in arriving for the interview
• Make the person you are interviewing feel comfortable. Dress appropriately. Be careful how you phrase your questions and watch your tone of delivery. Avoid jargon and be sensitive to the feelings of others.
• Be attentive - use good active listening skills

Additional Resources

Interviewing Experts: Benefits of Experts, Survival Skills for Managing Coastal Resources, NOAA Coastal Services Center

Process Guide #6: Interview Techniques, Process Guides

Example assignment –
Having Students Interview Experts, San Bernardino County History Day

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Case studies

Case studies are focused reality-based stories that help students to analyze and synthesize information, apply concepts and principles in a course, solve problems, make decisions, and generally to identify and examine broader implications of the content. Frequently used as a small group activity, the structure of the case provides the group with contextual information, such as background, characters, setting, and enough specific details for guidance. The case ends with the need for a decision, and the group analyzes the facts, identifies the problem and issues, and examines different perspectives. Finally students devise solutions, evaluating those solutions, coming to a consensus on the decision. The following recommendations for instructors should lead to effective use of cases:

• State the general goals you want the case to accomplish, and communicate these to students.
• Allow participants adequate time to read the case and to develop a response to your questions included with the case.
• Require students to do a written preliminary analysis to insure they have read the case and supporting materials (i.e., textbook assignments, outside readings, other materials) and have thought about the issues involved.
• Ask questions - place the responsibility for responding on the students. (Always acknowledge the good points that participants make. If some response was not adequate, ask other students how they see the issue.)
• Keep any content points you make short, specific, and to the point.
• Always provide a summary of key issues raised and any resolutions of issues that were obtained as part of the wrap-up. (Grasha, 1996)

Additional Resources

Guidelines for Case Writing, Schreyer Institute for Innovation in Learning

Case Studies, Writing@csu

Preparing an Effective Case Analysis

Turning Case Ideas into Cases, Center for Public Health Practice

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Problem-based learning (PBL)

This student-directed learning method uses case studies in a slightly different way - cases provide the structure for learning. The case problem is presented first in the learning sequence before any background preparation has occurred. Then, within their groups, students are required to identify three issues:

• What information they consider to be central to the case,
• What they already know and can apply to the case, and
• What they need to learn to proceed with the analysis of the case.

When small groups join together to discuss their interpretation of the case, a skilled facilitator is responsible for questioning and probing the students' reasoning, supporting active student involvement, clarifying issues as needed, and promoting the application and integration of information needed to proceed with the case (Van Leit, 1995). You can find guidelines for incorporating PBL later in this manual.

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Experiential learning (service or fieldwork)

Assignments using service in the community or fieldwork is one of the ultimate forms of having student application of learning. Direct experiences allow students to construct or reinforce knowledge or skills. Experiential learning sometimes requires that students identify experts (preceptors) in the community to assist with overseeing and validating course requirements. Often a contract becomes a way to help students identify and be accountable in reporting preceptors.

Additional Resources

Service Learning at MU

Synergy in Leadership: Engaging Students in Community, Christine Langone

Experiential Learning Cycles, extract from 'Powerful Learning Experiences' (1995) (revised, 2002), Roger Greenaway, Reviewing Skills Training

Field Experiences by Gail Ludwig, University of Missouri-Columbia

 

Resources

Print Resources

Bean, J.C. (2001). Engaging Ideas. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers

Bonwell, C., & Eison, J. 1991. Active learning: Creating excitement in the classroom. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Reports. 10.

Grasha, A.F. (1996). Teaching with style. Pittsburg, PA: Alliance Publishers.

Online Resources

Instructional Methods Information by ADPRIMA - http://www.adprima.com/teachmeth.htm

Tools / Theory / Pedagogy Matrix, Portland Community College

 

 

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Contributed by Margaret Gunderson (Associate Director, Educational Technologies at Missouri).